The immune system is the body’s defense system. It is a carefully and closely coordinated
system of specialized cells, each of which plays a specific role in the war against bodily
invaders. Let’s take a brief sidetrack and talk a bit about these invaders. Pathogens are
disease-causing biological agents that can generally be divided into bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and parasites.
Bacteria
We have been talking on and off about bacteria already. They are prokaryotes that come
in many shapes and sizes. They can infect many things, and sometimes they cause harm
and sometimes they do not. You may have heard of “gut bacteria” before; this is a special
colony of bacteria that lives inside each one of us. It helps us with some digestion and
makes some things we need. We have a mutualistic relationship with our gut bacteria.
Bacteria divide by fission; however, this does not increase their genetic diversity. Instead,
they can perform conjugation with other bacterial cells and swap some of their DNA.
Genetic variety among bacteria is leading to increased antibiotic resistance. As we
mentioned in Chapter 10, an increase in genetic variation increases the likelihood that a
population will survive a catastrophic event.
VIRUSES
Viruses are nonliving agents capable of infecting cells. Why are viruses considered
nonliving? They require a host cell’s machinery in order to replicate. A virus consists of
two main components: a protein capsid and genetic material made of DNA or RNA,
depending on the virus. Viruses are all very specific in which type of cells they infect, and
the thing infected by a virus is called a host.
Viruses have one goal: replicate/spread. In order to do this, a virus needs to make more
genome and make more capsid. They then assemble together into new viral particles.
The viral genome carries the genes for building the capsid and anything else the virus
needs that the host cannot provide. Sometimes, if two viruses infect the same cell, there
will be mixing of he genomes, especially if the viruses that have genomes split between
several chromosome-like segments. A new virus particle might emerge that is a blend of
the two viruses.
A commonly studied virus is a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria).
Bacteriophages undergo two different types of replication cycles, the lytic cycle and the
lysogenic cycle. In the lytic cycle, the virus immediately starts using the host cell’s
machinery to replicate the genetic material and create more protein capsids. These
spontaneously assemble into mature viruses and cause the cell to lyse, or break open,
releasing new viruses into the environment. In the lysogenic cycle, the virus incorporates
itself into the host genome and remains dormant until it is triggered to switch into the
lytic cycle. A virus can hide in the genome of a bacteria cell for a very long time. During
this time, the cell may divide and replicate the virus as well. By the time the lytic cycle is
triggered the virus may have been replicated many many times as the cell hosting it
divides.
When a virus excises from a host genome (becomes unintegrated), it sometimes
accidentally takes some of the bacterial cell’s DNA with it. Then, that gets replicated and
packaged into new viral particles with the viral genome. The next cell that gets infected is
not only getting infected with the viral genome, but also with that chunk of bacterial
DNA. If that chunk held a gene for something like antibiotic resistance, the next cell that
gets infected will gain that trait. The transfer of DNA from a virus to a bacterial cell is
called transduction.
Viruses that infect animals do not have to break their way out of the cell the same way
that a bacteriophage does. Since animals cells don’t have a cell wall, the viruses often just
“bud” out of the membrane like exocytosis. When a virus does this, it becomes enveloped
by a chunk of cell membrane that it takes with it. Viruses with a lipid envelope are called
enveloped viruses.
Retroviruses like the HIV virus are RNA viruses that use an enzyme called reverse
transcriptase to convert their RNA genomes into DNA so that they can be inserted into
a host genome. RNA viruses have extremely high rates of mutation because they lack
proofreading mechanisms when they replicate their genomes of mutation. This high rate
of mutation will create lots of variety, which makes these viruses difficult to treat. As was
discussed in Chapter 10, they evolve quickly as drug-resistant mutations become
naturally selected. New drugs must constantly be identified to treat the resistance.
Foreign molecules—be they viral, bacterial, or chemical—that can trigger an immune
response are called antigens. Humans and other vertebrates have two types of immune
responses: the innate immune response and the adaptive/specific immune
response. The innate is more of a general anti-invader response. The body recognizes
certain things that are common of foreign things and destroys them. The adaptive
response carefully catalogs and handles each antigen in a particular way. It also has a
memory component that helps it fight repeat attackers very efficiently.
THE TWO IMMUNE RESPONSES
The Innate Immune System
The body’s first line of defense against foreign substances is the skin and the mucous
lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts. If these defenses are not sufficient, other
nonspecific defense mechanisms are activated. These include phagocytes such as
macrophages (which engulf antigens), complement proteins (which lyse the cell
wall of the antigen), interferons (which inhibit viral replication and activate
surrounding cells that have antiviral actions), and inflammatory response (a series of
events in response to antigen invasion or physical injury). Activation of these defenses
requires immune cells to recognize the foreign substance (usually via receptor binding)
and activate intracellular signaling pathways. This is another example of how important
cell communication is to survival. These first line defenses are called the innate immune
system, and many organisms have this level of defense. The specifics vary with organism
structure, but there are several common themes. For example, a thick outer surface
usually protects the organism, such as the skin of a human, the cell wall of a bacteria, or
the cuticle of a plant. In all organisms, cell communication pathways are essential to
recognize “self” cells, recognize foreign substances, and initiate immune responses when
under attack by a pathogen (a disease-causing agent) or chemical.
The Adaptive/Specific Immune Response
Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the immune system. They are found mostly in the
blood and lymph nodes and are a type of white blood cell (or leukocyte). There are two
types of lymphocytes: B-cells and T-cells. When an individual becomes infected by a
pathogen, B- and T-lymphocytes get activated.
B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow and are involved in the humoral response,
which defends the body against pathogens present in extracellular fluids, such as
lymphatic fluid or blood. Each B-cell has a special receptor on its surface that can only
bind to foreign things. If a pathogen arrives that fits the receptor, the B-cell becomes
activated (with the help of a T-cell). The B-cell will begin to replicate and seek out more of
the pathogens. Some B-cells become memory B-cells that remain in circulation,
allowing the body to mount a quicker response if a second exposure to the same pathogen
should occur. Other B-cells become plasma cells that produce antibodies, which are
specific proteins that bind to antigens on the surface of pathogens that originally
activated them. The antibody that is made by each B-cell is identical to the the surface
receptor that caught the antigen. Each B-cell has a unique receptor/antibody that it
makes.
Remember, B-cells look for things out in the blood and
lymph and can make antibodies. T-cells check out what is
inside cells. Cytotoxic T-cells check all cells, and Helper Tcells
check what immune cells have picked-up and help
activate them.
Antibodies all have the same basic monomer structure that is shaped like the letter Y. The
stem of the Y is always the same and can interact with other cells in the immune
response. The arms of the Y are always unique because this is where the antibody binds
antigen. On each antibody, both arms bind the same shape so that it can hold two
antigens at once. As mentioned, this Y shape is just the monomer of an antibody.
Sometimes antibodies can have one, two, or five Y-monomers with the stem parts
attaching and the arms facing outward. Antibodies are typically made only when the
appearance of antigens in the body stimulates a defense mechanism, but they will linger
around after an infection. When an antibody binds to the antigen it is made for, it marks
the antigen for destruction. Antibodies can also combat the antigen just by binding to it
because this alone can wreak havoc for the pathogen.
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